Understanding Dog Sterilization: A Deep Dive into Legislation and Welfare

The Current Landscape of Dog Sterilization Laws

Federal animal welfare legislation in the United States does not address companion dog sterilization practices. As a result, individual state and local regulations differ significantly. Municipalities control the sterilization of companion dogs (Hodges, 2010). The American public has placed substantial pressure on municipal shelters, including Nevada’s Clark County public animal shelter. The goal is to reduce euthanasia rates of surplus pets and achieve “no kill” status.

This public goal of reducing the surplus pet population has dovetailed with state legislation and municipal regulations. These often require spaying and neutering of all pet dogs, usually before puberty. The aim is to decrease the pressure on animal shelters to house, adopt out, or potentially euthanize surplus pets (Hodges, 2010).

The surplus dog population is a serious and growing issue throughout the US, particularly in Clark County. The shelter pet population exploded dramatically after the COVID pandemic. The municipal animal shelter experienced a 30% increase in animal intakes and a staggering 91% increase in shelter animal euthanasia from 2021 to 2022. This occurred despite Clark County regulations requiring spaying and neutering of all dogs prior to sexual maturity (Gentry, 2023; Clark County Nevada, n.d.).

State and Local Regulations

Nevada state law does not mandate pet sterilization. However, Clark County regulations require all pet dogs to be sterilized by a veterinarian by four months of age unless owners first obtain a breeder’s permit. The penalty for failure to sterilize is not explicitly stated in the regulations. Instead, it is determined by Clark County Animal Control based on each individual case. Enforcement is not proactive, with inspections for individual owners typically occurring only when Animal Control is already present due to suspected welfare issues (Clark County Municode Codification, n.d.).

A survey conducted by University of Minnesota sociology professor Carol Glasser revealed that the vast majority (81%) of respondents supported spaying and neutering to reduce pet overpopulation. A significant majority (71%) also believed that sterilization was the moral choice. However, a similar majority (71%) felt that the decision to spay or neuter should be left to individual pet owners and not mandated by law (Glasser, 2021).

Spay and neuter policies in the United States have effectively reduced the euthanasia of shelter dogs from over 13 million per year in 1973 to under one million in 2021. Some shelters assert that the messaging around spaying and neutering has been so effective that there are not enough behaviorally healthy shelter pets available for adoption in some communities. This has led to a rise in unlicensed backyard breeders and commercial puppy mills producing litters to meet public demand for puppies (Wogan, 2021).

A Global Perspective on Sterilization Laws

The United States lacks a federal law requiring the sterilization of pet dogs, nor does it have laws forbidding it. Among the countries examined—namely the United States, United Kingdom, Germany, and Sweden—the US is the most permissive. There are no federal bans on animal amputation or mutilation, nor are there federal requirements for a veterinarian to perform sterilization procedures (Hodges, 2010; GOV UK, 2024; Animal Legal Historical Center, 2025; Farstad, 2011).

The US Animal Welfare Act and the Agriculture Improvement Act of 2018 outline animal welfare provisions at the national level for dogs. However, neither piece of legislation prohibits or regulates elective procedures on dogs, including sterilization. Enforcement of sterilization in the United States largely falls to municipal Animal Control offices, with varying regulations and penalties depending on the municipality (Clark County Nevada; Hodges, 2010).

Most municipalities have their own requirements for mandatory sterilization of adopted shelter dogs or for dogs residing in homes within their jurisdiction. Despite the absence of a singular law, early sterilization is mandated throughout much of the United States via local municipal regulations (Hodges, 2010).

Multi-Country Comparison

The United Kingdom is similar to the United States in that national legislation permits the sterilization of pet dogs but does not require it for most pet dogs. The UK’s Animal Welfare Act of 2006 prohibits procedures that mutilate the bodies of captive animals, including pets. However, there is a provision allowing veterinarians to perform procedures that prevent unwanted reproduction (GOV UK, 2024).

An exception in the UK mandates sterilization before twelve months of age for dogs categorized as dangerous due to their breed or crossbreed. This requirement is enforced by local municipal police, with penalties including potential impoundment and euthanasia of the dog if owners fail to comply (GOV UK, 2025).

Germany’s Animal Welfare Act is similar to the UK’s welfare laws, explicitly prohibiting the mutilation or amputation of an animal. It acknowledges that these procedures are painful and mandates that all operative procedures require treatment for pain. However, it allows veterinarians to perform procedures to prevent unwanted reproduction (Animal Legal and Historical Center, 2010).

Sweden’s Animal Protection Act also allows for sterilization while prohibiting amputation and mutilation. Any sterilization procedures in both Germany and Sweden must be performed by a veterinarian using anesthesia and pain management (Farstad, 2011; Animal Protection Index, n.d.; Animal Legal and Historical Center, 2010).

The animal welfare acts in both Germany and Sweden emphasize that animals have intrinsic value, and their worth is not defined by what they provide to humans. Violations of animal welfare laws are considered criminal acts in Sweden, potentially leading to fines and imprisonment (Animal Protection Index, n.d.; Länsstyrelsen, n.d.). In Germany, animal welfare laws are overseen by the Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture, and Forestry, with local police departments handling animal cruelty cases. Punishments for violations can range from monetary fines to imprisonment for up to three years (Deutscher Tierschutzbund, n.d.; Animal Legal and Historical Center, 2010).

Societal Attitudes and Legislative Reflections

Legislative welfare protections heavily reflect societal attitudes toward the roles of captive animals. The European Union has recognized animal sentience since 2009, acknowledging that all animals can experience pain and suffering. This recognition is embedded in legislation in both Germany and Sweden, forming the basis of their animal welfare and anti-cruelty laws (Animal Legal and Historical Center, 2010; Länsstyrelsen, n.d.; Animal Protection Index, n.d.).

The United Kingdom officially recognized animal sentience in 2022, emphasizing the importance of welfare for sentient beings capable of experiencing pain and distress due to human actions (Legislation.uk.gov, 2022). In contrast, the United States does not recognize animal sentience and still legally considers animals to be property according to the Animal Welfare Act. This classification allows humans to make decisions regarding animals’ bodies for their benefit, often without considering the effects on the animal (National Archives, 2025).

Changing Perspectives on Sterilization

The global public, including in the United States, has evolved in recent decades. People are becoming more aware of the physical and psychological benefits of delaying sterilization until after sexual maturity—or even avoiding it altogether. Some veterinary clinics now offer ovary-sparing spays and vasectomies. These procedures allow dogs to retain their hormones while eliminating the possibility of unwanted litters (Nolen, 2021).

Changes in societal attitudes may stem from increased public knowledge of potential negative health and behavior outcomes correlated with sterilization. Recent research has shown increased incidences of behavioral issues in sterilized dogs, such as fearfulness and aggression, as well as various types of cancers and joint issues in specific breeds (Vendramini et al., 2020; Hart et al., 2020; Howe, 2015).

In the United States, spaying and neutering is often promoted as routine, non-invasive surgery. However, a 2024 study by Adams and Muñoz found that only 16% of dogs in Michigan were discharged with pain medications after spay and neuter procedures (Adams and Munoz, 2024). Another study in 2024 (Bergquist et al.) revealed that only 26% of canine and feline sterilization patients received analgesic medications post-surgery. Approximately one-third of veterinarians surveyed believed that pain medications were unnecessary, despite the procedure involving the removal of internal organs (Bergquist, 2024).

In contrast, veterinarians in the UK performing canine spay surgeries overwhelmingly reported using post-operative pain management for 2-5 days. No veterinarians in the UK study reported using pain management for less than two days following a canine spay (Martino-Boulton et al., 2025). Societal perceptions of animals’ abilities to perceive pain likely shape cultural dog sterilization practices. Germany and Sweden classify spay and neuter procedures in the same category as amputations and mutilations, which are outlawed with exceptions for sterilization. This classification conveys a societal perception of sterilization as a serious, elective procedure that can potentially cause physical and psychological harm to the animal (Animal Legal and Historical Center, 2010; Farstad, 2011).

The Role of Advocacy and Education

The push for pet sterilization has historically come from animal shelter messaging and advocacy groups such as the ASPCA and Best Friends Animal Society. Their messaging framed sterilization as a necessary part of pet ownership, beneficial to both the animal and the human. However, discussions about the pain or risks of sterilization were often avoided, focusing instead on potential benefits to the human owner (History of the ASPCA, n.d.; Best Friends Animal Society, n.d.).

The animal agriculture lobby provides substantial donations to US state and federal politicians to ensure minimal welfare legislation. This lack of welfare legislation keeps agricultural animals and pets classified as “property,” without protections against procedures like sterilization, tail docking, and de-beaking. Any recognition of animals’ abilities to experience pain could lead to additional welfare legislation affecting industrial operations and profitability. The animal agriculture industry has significantly increased political donations in recent years to members of Congress and candidates opposing animal welfare legislation. In 2023, meat industry lobbyists, including agribusiness giants Tyson and Cargill, spent over $10 million in political donations to influence policies favoring their continued operations, including the absence of meaningful animal welfare legislation (McCracken, 2024; Schnide, 2025).

While the meat industry may not have a vested interest in whether pets are spayed or neutered, they play a crucial role in the continued absence of legislation addressing animal sentience and the acknowledgment of animal pain. This reflects the ongoing lack of legislative prohibitions or regulations in the United States concerning mutilation, amputation, or other elective procedures (Schnide, 2025). Animal agriculture lobbyists also exist in the European Union, but US lobbying groups in this category have spent 65% more on political donations and influence than their EU counterparts over a six-year period (Bluhm, 2024).

The Need for Change

As animal sentience remains unrecognized in US legislation, the public is becoming increasingly aware of animals’ ability to experience pain and stress similarly to humans. This awareness is evident in the consumer demand for products that reduce post-sterilization stress, such as softer, less restrictive alternatives to traditional plastic e-collars and clothing that covers sterilization stitches (McConnell, 2021).

In recent years, more pet guardians and veterinarians in the United States have sought to balance the perceived need to sterilize animals to prevent unwanted pregnancies with the best interests of the individual animals. Veterinarians are engaging in conversations with pet owners to determine the most appropriate time to sterilize based on the owner’s needs and concerns, as well as the risks of various cancers or joint issues for each animal (Nolen, 2021).

Research studies published in the United States evaluate the best times to spay and neuter to achieve specific outcomes, such as reducing potential cancer risks and preventing joint disorders (Howe, 2015; Hart et al., 2020). Other studies have examined the prevalence of aggression and fearfulness in dogs based on the age of spay or neuter. A 2018 study showed a 26% increase in serious aggression toward unfamiliar people in neutered males. As this information spreads, pet owners are realizing there may be unintended negative behavioral consequences to sterilizing their dogs (Farhoody et al., 2018; Starling et al., 2019).

Concluding Thoughts and Possible Avenues Forward

US legislation surrounding sterilization is far behind that of the rest of the Western world. There is a lack of awareness regarding the individual experience of animals during invasive procedures, an acknowledgment of the intrinsic value of each animal, and respect for their bodily integrity. Furthermore, there are insufficient regulations to ensure invasive procedures are performed in a way that minimizes pain and harm to the animal. Existing US state laws primarily reflect the attitude that dogs are personal property, disregarding their capacity to experience physical and psychological harm (National Archives, n.d.; Hodges, 2010).

Corporate lobbying from the meat industry has ensured that federal legislators protect human interests by halting the progression of any federal legislation acknowledging animal sentience or the emotional experiences of animals. This lack of recognition makes the need for regulations undeniable (McCracken, 2024; Schnide, 2025).

The original objective of spaying and neutering in the United States was to reduce shelter euthanasia by decreasing the surplus pet population (Hodges, 2010). Yet, an estimated 70-80% of US dogs are sterilized, and shelters still face overwhelming numbers of animals daily due to strays and owner relinquishments. The most common reason for animal relinquishment is behavior issues (Coren, 2023; Kisley et al., 2024). The number of animals euthanized at shelters increased by over 30% from 2022 to 2023 (Shelter Animals Count, n.d.). According to Shelter Animals Count’s 2024 statistics, 13% of shelter dogs were euthanized, while only 65% were adopted into new homes.

The UK has faced similar challenges with increasing owner relinquishments of dogs to shelters. Shelters acknowledge performing euthanasia on unadopted pets, but they do not disclose those statistics. Approximately 70% of dogs in the UK are sterilized (Allen, 2020). UK animal shelters increasingly encounter dogs with aggressive behavior that makes them unsafe for adoption. They also face dogs, particularly brachycephalic breeds, relinquished due to expensive medical issues that pose welfare concerns for the individual dog (Loeb & Gray, 2024).

In Germany, about 50% of dogs are sterilized, yet shelters still struggle with high occupancy rates (Allen, 2020). Germany maintains a no-kill policy for dogs in their shelters, but they face excessive numbers of pets relinquished with severe behavioral issues and costly medical cases that are challenging to adopt out. Only 18% of their animal shelters had available spaces in August 2024 (Deutscher Tierschutzbund, 2024).

In Sweden, only about 20% of dogs are sterilized, yet stray dogs are uncommon, and the euthanasia rate is nearly zero (Herzog, 2018). Swedish police occasionally seize dogs from owners and may euthanize dogs if they behave aggressively and pose a continued risk to the public. Swedish laws emphasize the ultimate responsibility of both breeders and dog owners to develop dogs that behave non-aggressively and can be safely controlled in public spaces (Sarenbo, 2019).

Countries with high rates of sterilization do not have lower rates of shelter occupancy and euthanasia than those where sterilization is less common. Further research is necessary to explore the social and cultural issues underlying this phenomenon. However, a common correlation between US, UK, and Germany shelter relinquishments is dog behavior issues. US shelter organizations have long asserted that sterilization would help improve dog behavior issues. Yet, countries with higher sterilization rates still have full shelters and dogs surrendered due to behavior issues that cannot be placed in new homes (Deutscher Tierschutzbund, 2024; Coren, 2023; Kisley et al., 2024; Loeb & Gray, 2024; ASPCA, n.d.; Best Friends Animal Society, n.d.).

US legislation provides little guidance to pet owners on the basic physiological or psychological needs of pet dogs, the normal behaviors that may be viewed as problematic, and appropriate training methodologies to prevent or treat problem behaviors. There is no acknowledgment of dogs' abilities to experience pain and suffering. This is a cultural issue affecting both pet owners and veterinary professionals’ perceptions of dogs’ physical needs and emotional experiences. This is evident in two research studies where few US veterinarians felt that dogs experienced significant pain following spay or neuter procedures to warrant pain medications after discharge (Adams and Munoz, 2024; Berquist et al., 2024).

Clark County legislation currently mandates that dogs must be sterilized by four months of age by a veterinarian, but it does not specify how this should be performed (Clark County Municode, n.d.). These legislative and knowledge gaps could potentially be remedied by changing county animal welfare regulations to include a requirement to minimize pain during the procedure. The regulations could shift the focus from amputating dogs’ anatomy to prevent procreation to emphasizing owners’ responsibility to maintain control of their dogs in public spaces and ensure they behave non-aggressively.

Similar to Swedish legislation, this would place the responsibility on owners to train their dogs and take action to prevent them from free-roaming and procreating (Sarenbo, 2019). These changes could be combined with mandatory veterinary continuing education classes in animal behavior and body language to address the knowledge gap around how dogs experience pain and suffering during invasive procedures. This could lead to veterinarians changing their recommendations for sterilization and improving how they treat post-operative pain in canine patients.

The public dissemination of scientific knowledge has already led to some improvements in dogs’ overall welfare concerning spay and neuter. This is evident in the recent surge of interest from pet owners and veterinarians in delaying spay and neuter and in products that reduce stress associated with these procedures (McConnell, 2021; Nolen, 2021).

To address knowledge gaps among the public, the county could offer educational seminars on the biology, natural behaviors, and body language of dogs. This would provide potential dog owners with the necessary information before acquiring a new pet. It would help them understand what is required to care for a new dog at an appropriate welfare level before deciding to purchase or adopt.

Animal Control could also sponsor educational seminars for children in public schools. Children would learn about dogs’ biological and behavioral needs, basic body language, the impacts of human behaviors on dog welfare, ways to reduce pain and stress for dogs, and the lifelong commitment that comes with dog ownership. This knowledge would inform owners’ sterilization decisions and help them recognize human actions that may cause pain or stress in dogs. It could also foster more responsible and understanding dog owners who are less likely to relinquish their dogs to animal shelters (Baatz et al., 2020).

This type of educational initiative was successfully implemented in a research study by Baatz et al. (2020), which provided educational classes to children on animal sentience and responsible dog ownership. The children who attended the classes scored significantly better than the control group regarding positive attitudes toward the needs and feelings of dogs and responsible dog ownership. Education has the potential to shape human attitudes and behaviors, improving decision-making and practices surrounding dog sterilization.

Improving welfare around sterilization may be more easily addressed at the local level through municipal regulations than through state statutes and federal legislation due to the heavy lobbying of the agriculture industry (McCracken, 2024; Schnide, 2025). While there are no existing state or federal statutes addressing sterilization, local Clark County regulations regarding sterilization already exist. Strengthening these regulations, as described above, and combining them with educational outreach to veterinarians, the pet-owning public, and children could improve dog welfare concerning sterilization and reduce the surplus dog population in the county.

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Eileen Koval, CDBC, CBCC-KA, CPDT-KA, MSc (in Operations Management) is a fully certified dog behavior consultant with the International Association of Animal Behavior Consultants (IAABC). She is currently working toward an M.S. in Applied Animal Behavior and Welfare at Husson University. Eileen believes that the foundation of a good cross-species relationship is understanding the needs and normal behavior patterns of each dog as an individual. She enjoys helping humans and dogs communicate more effectively to create brilliant relationships filled with joy, purpose, and fulfillment for all species involved. Eileen offers private consulting for serious dog behavior issues, obedience/manners, and agility training. She developed a unique online course to help pet parents and trainers develop reliable snake avoidance behavior off-leash through positive reinforcement techniques. These techniques have been applied by trainers worldwide to teach dogs reliable avoidance of dangerous environmental hazards and off-leash property boundaries. Eileen lives on a small ranch in Las Vegas, Nevada, with her husband and their Nederlandse Kooikerhondjes.